Models and Examples
This section contains key information to aid the action research process. First, we present three models or paradigms for action research. Second, we provide some examples from a range of educational research projects that have employed the model 2: Practical Action Research.
Examples of Model 3 are mostly social and community research and examples are not included here. Model 1 is not now widely used in action research and is included here for historical reference only.
Each example is described briefly with reference to the stages in a cycle of an action research project: Question => Plan => Act => Observe => Reflect =>
In actual fact, the difference between the models is the degree to which an outside researcher influences the action research project in terms of framing the research question and determining the direction the research will take. In Model 1 this influence is considerable, whereas in Model 3 practitioners work collaboratively to define their own problems and identify possible solutions.
Note also that the titles usually given to these models ("Technical", "Practical" and "Emancipatory") are somewhat obscure and do not really give a clear idea of how the model is practiced. We have employed these labels because they are in common usage among action researchers, but the accompanying descriptions give a clearer picture.
We anticipate that within this broad framework, instructors will devise their own models and methods of research, consistent with constraints imposed by their students, availability of support and teaching resources.
Three Action Research Models
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Model |
Example |
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1 |
Technical Action Research
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2 |
Practical Action Research
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3 |
Emancipatory Action Research
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Example for Practical Action Research
- Using interactive multimedia to support information systems training: system design and learning issues
Action Researchers: Grace Au, Ivan Choi, Patrick Chau, Kar Yan Tam, Ben Petrazzini, Tung Bui, ISMT, School of Business and Management, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Lecturing initiatives with multimedia tools in Engineering education
Action Researchers: M. J. Davidson, Department of Civil Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology - Training effective writers of business English through interactive feedback
Action Researchers: Anna Yu, Pionie Foo, Irene Ng and Lillian Law, Language Center, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Example 1
The Action Research Project:
Using interactive multimedia to support information systems training: system design and learning issues.
Action Researchers: Grace Au, Ivan Choi, Patrick Chau, Kar Yan Tam, Ben Petrazzini, Tung Bui, ISMT, School of Business and Management, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
Cycle 1
Question
Although interactive multimedia has been used in education for some time, little is known about its effectiveness in enhancing students' learning ability. The aim of the project was to investigate the value of multimedia in supporting teaching and learning processes for information systems training.
Plan
The multimedia system used was the first generation of Information Systems Explorer (ISEI), a multimedia electronic slide show. The objective of the system was to stimulate students' interest by adding audio-visual capabilities to the lecture presentation. The plan was to use ISEI as a pilot system to investigate students' learning attitudes and learning outcomes in response to such systems.
Act
The system was used in lectures, replacing the use of transparencies and overhead projectors.
Observe
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the system, feedback was obtained from students about their preference for learning with the system. The effect on students' learning was also evaluated.
Reflect
Feedback from students indicated that the majority preferred to learn in a lecturing environment accompanied by the ISEI, audio-visual presentation. The system helped them to digest information by increasing their interest in the topics covered and they were able to visualize some concepts in a more vivid manner.
On the other hand, the display quality, the need for dim lighting in the lecture hall, and technical interruptions interfered with students' concentration.
Most students wanted to have access to the slide show for revision purposes. Also, although students preferred the presentation to text book learning the system did not necessarily help students to understand how information systems related to business processes in practice.
Cycle 2
Review the question
A literature review revealed that problems particular to the subject of information systems were that students find it difficult to visualize how the business world functions and also find it difficult to integrate information systems concepts and apply the knowledge they acquire in answering case study-type questions.
The team asked whether a visual interface could be better designed using a dynamic storyboard to facilitate the formation of the learners' mental model.
The lessons learned with ISEI, together with the findings from the literature review, provided insights in the creation of ISEII, a new version of the system, which incorporated innovative concepts in delivering knowledge to students. The design philosophy of ISEII was to make use of interactive multimedia in providing a desktop virtual reality environment where students could learn about basic information systems concepts by navigating through a simulated office. The system allows students to interact with objects inside the virtual office, review the information associated with that object and respond to questions asked.
The new system was devised to be used both as an aid to lectures and by students as a self-learning tool during revisions.
Plan
The system was integrated with lectures over a one semester period.
Act
In each series of ISEII presentations, students were assigned tasks in different case situations, focusing on how to apply information systems concepts in solving business problems in a simulated company.
Observe
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the design, both objective and subjective data were collected at the end of each training session by means of questionnaire surveys and interviews.
Before the evaluation, the students were given a set of cognitive tests and classified according to their cognitive styles and their technical, analytical and management abilities.
Reflect
Results of the evaluation indicated that the ISEII system had increased students' incentive to learn and interest in learning. A key lesson learnt was that it will greatly enhance the effectiveness of the system if the user is provided with clear goals and an appropriate level of interactivity.
It was found that students tended to lose concentration and interest when the earlier version of the system did not have built-in questions for obtaining instant feedback on the subject. The evaluation also revealed that the learning process will be greatly enhanced if the system design is learner-centered, i.e. it is designed around the end users' mental models based upon individual needs.
Example 2
The Action Research Project:
Lecturing initiatives with multimedia tools in Engineering education
Action Researchers: M. J. Davidson, Department of Civil Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Cycle 1
Question
Initially the fluid mechanics course was typical of most engineering courses in that it contained about 30% more materials than should be taught in the specified time frame. Surveys of students indicated that they found the course difficult and the workload heavy. Instructors were concerned about the students' ability to retain the material that was being taught in the current format.
Plan
The plan was to modify the curriculum by splitting the course into two courses to be taught in consecutive semesters, thus reducing the amount of material taught in each course. This enabled greater emphasis to be placed on tutorials and less emphasis on lectures.
At the end of each tutorial, students would be asked to do a number of things: a formal quiz with no communication and no help, or students were allowed to ask questions of the instructor, or students were allowed to work in groups.
Act
The new course structure was implemented over one semester for the first of the two courses.
Observe
The second after-tutorial format which involved students asking questions was very beneficial in encouraging students to ask questions: there were a greater number of questions during lectures than in the previous format and many more students came to the instructor's office to ask questions outside the lectures.
Reflect
Improvements were observed in the course but the instructor thought there were additional things which could be done in future to improve the course further.
Cycle 2
Review the question
The revised questions focused on:
- How to improved students' understanding of mathematic derivations needed in fluid mechanics.
- How to make examples of applications more interesting.
- How to demonstrate the dynamic nature of problems in the course.
Plan
Three new initiatives were planned:
- Instead of developing topics in fluid mechanics through mathematical derivations followed by discussion, the lecture notes were reorganized so that final equations and applications were presented and discussed first. This was done to help understanding of students who were not mathematically sophisticated and to help students to distinguish between key concepts that must be memorized and other material that needed to be understood but not memorized.
- More local and regional applications were introduced to improve students' motivation and enhance interest. This process could be aided by videos and photographs in the lecture theatre.
- Animated diagrams and videos of relevant laboratory experiments and local examples were to be used to demonstrate the dynamic nature of problems being considered. This was done to enhance interest and improve students' physical understanding of the problem.
A single multimedia package software package was planned to introduce all three initiatives more efficiently and effectively.
Act
Before development of the multimedia software package, student data was gathered to set a baseline for evaluating future improvements and to contribute to development of the package itself.
Observe
Several observation methods were used.
Surveys
University course evaluation was used to gauge the overall effectiveness of the course.
The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) was used to provide insight into the students' approaches to learning the material.
A diagnostic survey similar in format to the SPQ but with questions that were specific to the course was designed. The survey aimed to reflect what had been achieved to date and identify problems that still needed to be addressed.
Conceptual quiz
The conceptual quiz was designed to explore misunderstandings of the material taught in the earlier part of the course.
Reflect
The information provided by the observations provides valuable input into development of the multimedia software package and once implemented surveys and conceptual quizzes will be used to monitor its effectiveness.
Example 3
The Action Research Project:
Training effective writers of business English through interactive feedback
Action Researchers: Anna Yu, Pionie Foo, Irene Ng and Lillian Law, Language Center, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Cycle 1
Question
In their years as writing consultants, the instructors had found numerous problems in students' business writings in that they did not often meet their writing purposes, essential information was missing, tone inappropriate, and set phrases inserted inappropriately.
Moreover, typographical and surface errors show that students do not seem to edit their own work.
Plan
To design a four-week intensive business letter writing course to help students overcome the problems in their business letters.
Act
The course introduced a number of innovations over two trials:
Situation analysis checklist: designed to help students think in depth about the multiple facets of the writing situation.
Reader-centeredness in editing: the reader was brought into the editing situation by an audience simulation where another student was asked to role-play the reader and to set out their own expectations of the letter.
Interactive feedback: students obtained feedback from each other in the planning stage while at other stages students and consultants interacted.
Observe
Effectiveness of the course was measured in terms of students' attitude and performance before and after the course. Performance was also monitored over an extended period.
Reflect
Results from the trials were positive and encouraging: students showed significant improvement in the content and tone of the letters they produced.
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